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| Festival di musica francese in Italia Suona francese regala al pubblico romano una grande Festa della musica in Piazza Farnese Martedì 21 giugno, dalle 20.00, con l'ensemble jazz del Conservatorio Santa Cecilia sotto la direzione di Paolo Damiani, La Caravane Passe et R-Wan Ingresso libero Nellambito di Suona Francese, e con Paris Rockin, una grande Festa della musica si terrà in piazza Farnese, martedì 21 giugno, dalle ore 20,00. Il concertone avrà inizio con l'ensemble jazz del Conservatorio Santa Cecilia sotto la direzione di Paolo Damiani. Alle ore 21,00 si esibiranno il gruppo francese La Caravane Passe e il cantautore R-Wan. Il concerto sarà replicato il 23 giugno nello spazio del Teatro Koreja a Lecce e il 25 giugno allAquila con una grande sfilata in piazza Duomo cui prenderanno parte anche gli allievi del Conservatorio A. Casella. Prosegue così limpegno dellAmbasciatore di Francia in Italia, Jean-Marc de La Sablière, per i terremotati abruzzesi, che si era espresso già lanno scorso proprio in occasione del concerto conclusivo della edizione 2010 di Suona francese. La Caravane Passe è un complesso che ci propone un viaggio musicale nel folklore: canzone francese, musica tzigana, hip-hop, world music, balkan ska, electro rock... Dotato di una straordinaria energia, il gruppo canta in diverse lingue, dal francese all'inglese, dal serbo allo spagnolo, dal tedesco al rumeno. Un vero melting-pot paneuropeo che ci racconta storie di viaggi, di frontiere, di culture e di personaggi. Succede sempre qualcosa nei loro concerti davvero imperdibili. R.wan è un cantautore nato nella banlieue parigina. Cantante dei Java, da 15 anni gruppo cult della scena francese, si è anche lanciato in una carriera da solista, registrando due dischi (Radio Cortex 1 e Radio Cortex 2), sempre nella stessa vena urbana tra hip-hop parlato e canzone francese. Il risultato è molto moderno ed i suoi concerti regalano bellissimi momenti, grazie alla sua energia contagiosa. Si tratta di uno degli ultimi appuntamenti di Suona francese, rassegna di musica francese organizzata dallAmbasciata di Francia in Italia e dallInstitut Français, con il sostegno della Fondazione Nuovi Mecenati e della SACEM. www.suonafrancese.it www.parisrockin.it |
| Comunicato stampa IV edizione di “Suona francese” - Festival di musica attuale Aprile - Giugno 2011 160 eventi, 40 città, 500 artisti Apre il 7 aprile all’ Auditorium di Roma con Franco Battiato, scelsi Scelsi - prima assoluta - e arrivano in Italia Charles Aznavour, les Rendez-vous de la Lune, Les Trois Baudets, Paris Rockin’… È stato presentato giovedì 31 marzo alle 10,00 presso l’Ambasciata di Francia in Italia la quarta edizione di "Suona francese", festival di musica francese attuale, che si svolgerà da aprile a giugno con manifestazioni in tutta Italia, posto sotto il patrocinio del Presidente della Repubblica italiana. Organizzata dall’Ambasciata di Francia in Italia in collaborazione con L’Institut français e con il sostegno della fondazione Nuovi Mecenati e della SACEM (Société des Auteurs, Compositeurs et Editeurs de Musique) con cadenza annuale, la manifestazione ha quest’anno come tema unificante la musica attuale, con particolare attenzione alla canzone francese, in un arco che va da un cantante "classico" come Charles Aznavour, in un eccezionale concerto-evento il 13 aprile all'Auditorium di Roma per l’Accademia di Santa Cecilia, alle più recenti espressioni del genere, ma anche al jazz, alla musica elettronica e alla contemporanea, con la prima esecuzione assoluta di una composizione di Franco Battiato. Fortemente voluto da Jean-Marc de La Sablière, ambasciatore di Francia in Italia, prosegue l’impegno a favore dei terremotati abruzzesi, con il concerto del 25 giugno di L’Aquila. Verrà presentata la prima edizione di “Suona italiano”, forse una delle più importanti rassegne di musica italiana mai realizzate in Francia, organizzata parallelamente dalla Fondazione Musica per Roma in coordinamento con l’Ambasciata di Francia in Italia. Secondo la formula già collaudata negli anni passati, "Suona francese" coinvolge nella sua programmazione dei "giganti" come l'Auditorium di Roma e il Teatro alla Scala fino a piccole associazioni musicali, in un percorso che, in occasione del 150° anniversario dell'Unità d'Italia, copre tutte le regioni italiane, con concerti, master class e seminari che vanno da Aosta a Pantelleria. Il numero degli appuntamenti è triplicato rispetto all’anno scorso, con 160 eventi previsti in 40 città (il doppio del 2010), e vede la partecipazione di più di 500 artisti, dei quali oltre 400 italiani e un centinaio francesi. Si raggiunge così un record assoluto: con una presenza in modo capillare sul territorio italiano, si ottiene quest’anno anche la partecipazione di tutte le istituzioni francesi attive in Italia, come fanno notare i due curatori della rassegna, Sandrine Mini, addetta culturale dell’Ambasciata di Francia in Italia, e Oscar Pizzo. Uno degli elementi cardine della rassegna sono i 31 Conservatori italiani, che partecipano con concerti e master class. La percentuale di adesione al progetto è altissima, e “Suona francese” può fregiarsi della collaborazione del Ministero dell’istruzione, dell’università e della ricerca. Tra le iniziative principali, dislocate in tutta Italia, i Rendez-vous de la Lune e gli appuntamenti con la canzone francese organizzati da Les Trois Baudets. I Rendez-vous de la Lune, accolti da più di due anni nel Salon Musical de Saint-Eustache della celebre chiesa omonima nel centro di Parigi, partono dall’idea di chiedere agli artisti di suonare davanti ad un pubblico ristretto in un luogo intimo e originale, alla ricerca di nuove formule e incontri inediti. In collaborazione con l’Institut français, sei artisti (Babx, L, Piers Faccini, Barbara Carlotti, Jeanne Cherhal e La Grande Sophie) avranno così l’opportunità di suonare in luoghi prestigiosi a Roma (Palazzo Farnese, Villa Medici), Palermo (Teatro Nuovo Montevergini), Firenze (Palazzo Lenzi), Napoli e Potenza. Nella stessa ottica del confronto con altre culture e dell’incontro con un pubblico nuovo Les Trois Baudets, storico teatro parigino dedicato alla “nouvelle chanson”, sostiene gli artisti al fine di elaborare una rete della canzone francofona. Julien Bassouls, direttore del teatro, è infatti molto sensibile alla questione della francofonia e della difesa della lingua francese. Anche Paris Rockin’ è un concetto alternativo e urbano che raggruppa due attività principali: un programma radiofonico settimanale su Popolare Network che presenta le novità della scena musicale francese, e delle serate a Roma che propongono una selezione di qualità di artisti francesi in luoghi diversi quali, ad esempio, il Circolo degli Artisti e Villa Medici. Paris Rockin’ rappresenta la mentalità e l’onda creativa parigina sul territorio italiano proponendo regolarmente concerti-eventi e artisti inediti a Roma, per aprire al pubblico italiano una finestra sulle nuove tendenze della creazione musicale francese. Per “Suona francese” Paris Rockin’ presenterà interpreti come Wax Tailor, Dop e Breakbot; da segnalare in particolare il concerto del 21 giugno a Palazzo Farnese quando, in occasione della Festa della Musica, si esibiranno La caravane passe e R’wan. Tra gli appuntamenti principali per la musica contemporanea, una serie di conferenze-seminari dell’IRCAM (Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique) sulle nuove tecnologie per la creazione sonora, destinata agli studenti dei Conservatori italiani, che coinvolgono Milano, Roma, Torino, Venezia e Trento. Tre giovani compositori italiani, in formazione da due anni presso il celebre istituto di ricerca e di creazione di Parigi, tornano in Italia, ognuno accompagnato da un suo predecessore (Andrea Cera, Mauro Lanza, Yan Maresz). È questa l’occasione per trasmettere la loro esperienza alla nuova generazione e farle scoprire i principali campi di ricerca musicale dell’Istituto parigino: l’interazione in tempo reale tra strumento ed elettronica, la spazializzazione del suono, il design sonoro, gli strumenti virtuali, l’aiuto alla composizione con l’informatica. L’IRCAM è oggi uno dei maggiori centri di ricerca pubblica al mondo, un luogo unico dove convergono la creazione artistica, l’innovazione scientifica e tecnologica, la trasmissione del sapere e le nuove prospettive per i giovani creatori. Sempre alla musica contemporanea sono dedicati una serie di appuntamenti che si concentreranno sulla figura del compositore Tristan Murail, esponente della musica spettrale insieme a Grisey e Dufourt, con i quali è stato fondatore dell’ensemble l’Itinéraire. Durante la sua formazione, i suoi modelli estetici sono stati le opere di musica elettroacustica, come quelle di Iannis Xenakis, György Lieti e Giacinto Scelsi. Proprio a Scelsi e a Georges Ivanovich Gurdjeff, un maestro inaudito e sconcertante che insegnava, con l’ausilio di tecniche collegate ad antichissime dottrine orientali, a risvegliarsi da una vita di automi addormentati, si renderà omaggio in uno dei primi concerti di “Suona francese” il 7 aprile nella Sala Petrassi dell’Auditorium di Roma, con un programma che vedrà anche la prima esecuzione assoluta di un’opera di Franco Battiato, scelsi Scelsi, realizzata grazie al supporto della Fondazione Isabella Scelsi. www.suonafrancese.it |
| Questo articolo è rilasciato sotto i termini della
GNU Free Documentation License Esso utilizza materiale tratto da http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia Cronologia/Autori: http://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francia&action=history FranciaDa Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera.
La Francia o Repubblica francese (in francese, France o République française) è uno stato dell'Europa occidentale, confinante con Belgio, Lussemburgo, Germania, Svizzera, Italia, Monaco, Andorra, e Spagna. È uno dei membri fondatori dell'Unione Europea e membro del G8.
[modifica] Storia
I confini della Francia moderna coincidono molto con quelli dell'antico territorio della Gallia, abitata dai Galli, una popolazione celtica. I Galli vennero sottomessi nel I secolo AC dai Romani, con i quali si fusero adottandone linguaggio e cultura. Anche il Cristianesimo mise radici, nel II e III secolo DC. Le frontiere orientali della Gallia, lungo il Reno, vennero invase dalle tribù germaniche nel IV secolo, principalmente dai Franchi, dai quali deriva l'antico nome di "Francie", il nome moderno, "Francia" deriva dal nome del dominio feudale dei re Capetingi di Francia, attorno a Parigi (vedi Île-de-France). Anche se la monarchia francese viene spesso datata al V secolo, l'esistenza continua della Francia come entità a sé stante inizia con il IX secolo e la divisione dell'Impero Franco di Carlomagno in una parte orientale e una occidentale. La parte orientale può essere vista come l'inizio di quella che oggi è la Germania, quella occidentale come la Francia. I discendenti di Carlomagno governarono la Francia fino al 987, quando Ugo Capeto, duca di Francia e conte di Parigi, venne incoronato re di Francia. I suoi discendenti iniziarono la dinastia dei Capetingi, che governò la Francia fino al 1792, quando la rivoluzione Francese fondò una Repubblica, in un periodo di cambiamenti sempre piú radicali che iniziò nel 1789. Napoleone Bonaparte (al secolo Buonaparte) prese il controllo della Repubblica nel 1799, autoproclamandosi Imperatore nel 1804. Le sue armate si impegnarono in diverse guerre attraverso l'Europa, conquistarono molte nazioni e fondarono nuovi regni, guidati dai familiari di Napoleone. A seguito della sua sconfitta nel 1815, la monarchia venne restaurata in Francia, per essere successivamente abolita legislativamente e sostituita dalla Seconda Repubblica francese. La Seconda Repubblica finì quando il nipote del primo Imperatore, Luigi Napoleone Bonaparte, venne eletto Presidente e proclamò un Secondo Impero. Meno ambizioso dello zio, il secondo Napoleone venne anch'egli spodestato, e la Repubblica tornò per la terza volta. Anche se vincitrice nella Prima e nella Seconda guerra mondiale, la Francia soffrì gravi perdite in termini di vite, impero, benessere, forza lavoro e grado di nazione dominante. Dal 1958, ha costruito una democrazia presidenziale (nota come Quinta Repubblica) che non ha ceduto alle instabilità sperimentate nei precedenti regimi parlamentari. Negli ultimi decenni, la riconciliazione e la cooperazione della Francia con la Germania si è rivelata centrale per l'integrazione economica dell'Europa, compresa l'introduzione dell'Euro nel gennaio 1999. Oggi, la Francia è in prima fila tra gli stati europei che cercano di sfruttare lo slancio dato dall'unione monetaria per portare avanti la creazione d'un apparato politico, di difesa e di sicurezza europeo più unificato ed efficace. La Francia è anche uno dei cinque membri permanenti del Consiglio di Sicurezza delle Nazioni Unite.
[modifica] Politica
La costituzione della Quinta Repubblica venne approvata tramite referendum il 28 settembre 1958. Essa rafforzava fortemente l'autorità dell'esecutivo in relazione al Parlamento. In base alla costituzione, il Presidente viene eletto direttamente per un mandato di 5 anni (in origine 7 anni). L'arbitraggio presidenziale assicura il regolare funzionamento dei poteri pubblici e la continuità dello stato. Il Presidente nomina il Primo Ministro, presiede il gabinetto, comanda le forze armate e conclude i trattati. L'Assemblea Nazionale (Assemblée Nationale) è il principale corpo legislativo. I suoi deputati sono eletti direttamente con mandato di 5 anni, tutti i seggi vengono votati ad ogni elezione. I senatori vengono scelti da un collegio elettorale per un mandato di 6 anni (prima 9 anni), e un terzo del senato viene rinnovato ogni 2 anni (prima ogni 3). Il potere legislativo del Senato è limitato; l'Assemblea Nazionale ha l'ultima parola in caso di disaccordo tra le due camere. Il governo ha una forte influenza sulla stesura dell'ordine del giorno del Parlamento. Vedi anche:
[modifica] Divisioni amministrative
La Francia è divisa in 22 regioni (in francese: région), che sono ulteriormente suddivise in 100 dipartimenti (in francese départements), di cui 4 d'oltremare. I dipartimenti sono numerati (principalmente in ordine alfabetico) e i numeri vengono usati ad esempio per i codici postali o le targhe automobilistiche. Tra parentesi sono indicati i capoluoghi.
I dipartimenti sono ulteriormente suddivisi in 342 zone (in francese arrondissements). I dipartimenti d'oltremare sono ex-colonie che ora godono d'uno status simile a quello della Francia Europea o metropolitana. Sono considerati una parte della Francia (e dell'UE) piuttosto che territori dipendenti. I paesi e territori d'oltremare formano parte della Repubblica francese, ma non sono parte del territorio europeo della Repubblica o dell'area fiscale dell'UE. Continuano ad usare il Franco francese del pacifico come valuta, che non è stata influenzata dalla sostituzione del franco francese con l'euro nel 2002. Le collettività territoriali hanno uno status a metà tra i dipartimenti d'oltremare e i territori d'oltremare. La Francia inoltre mantiene il controllo su numerose piccole isole dell'Oceano Indiano e dell'Oceano Pacifico, comprese Bassas da India, Isola Clipperton, Isola Europa, Isole Glorioso, Isola Juan de Nova, Isola Tromelin. Si veda anche Isole sparse nell'Oceano Indiano [modifica] Geografia
Le maggiori città francesi
La Francia possiede un'ampia varietà di paesaggi, che vanno dalle pianure costiere a nord e ad ovest, dove la Francia confina con il Mare del Nord e l'Oceano Atlantico, fino alle catene montuose dei Pirenei a sud e delle Alpi a sud-est; in comproprietà con l'Italia si trova su questa catena il Monte Bianco (4.810 m), la cima più alta delle Alpi, ma che comunque non è il tetto del continente: (la montagna piú alta d'Europa è il monte Elbrus (5.642 m), in Russia, nella catena del Caucaso). Nel mezzo si trovano altre regioni elevate, come il Massiccio Centrale o le montagne dei Vosgi, e vasti bacini fluviali come quelli della Loira, del Rodano, della Garonna e della Senna. Le principali città della Francia sono:
Vedi anche:
[modifica] Economia
L'economia francese combina un'estesa imprenditoria privata, con un sostanziale, ma in declino, intervento governativo. Ampi tratti di terra fertile, l'applicazione delle tecnologie moderne e i sussidi, si sono combinati per rendere la Francia il principale produttore agricolo dell'Europa Occidentale. La Francia è uno dei pochi paesi europei dove l'energia eolica, solare e geotermica sono molto sviluppati; l'energia idraulica produce ma è ormai poco considerata come quella del carbone; è molto sviluppata l'energia nucleare che produce il 30% dell'autosufficienza energetica. Il governo mantiene una considerevole influenza sui segmenti chiave del settore delle infrastrutture, con quote di maggioranza in ferrovie, elettricità, aeronautica, e telecomunicazioni. Ha comunque gradualmente rilasciato il controllo su questi settori fin dai primi anni '90. Il governo sta lentamente vendendo le sue partecipazioni in France Télécom, Air France, e nei settori assicurativo, bancario e della difesa. La Francia si unì ad altri 10 paesi UE per lanciare l'euro il 1 gennaio 1999, valuta che ha rimpiazzato completamente il franco francese all'inizio del 2002.
[modifica] Demografia
La lingua ufficiale è il francese. Esistono diverse lingue locali (basco, bretone, catalano, corso, olandese (fiammingo), alsaziano, occitano), ma il governo francese e il sistema scolastico ne hanno scoraggiato l'uso fino a poco tempo fa. Le lingue regionali vengono ora insegnate in alcune scuole, anche se il francese rimane l'unica lingua ufficiale in uso dal governo, locale o nazionale.
[modifica] ReligioneA seguito della
Dichiarazione dei diritti dell'uomo e del cittadino del
1789, la
Francia garantisce la
libertà di religione come diritto costituzionale. Una legge del
1905
istituisce la separazione di chiesa e stato e proibisce al governo di
riconoscere, stipendiare o sussidiare qualsiasi
religione. Nella situazione precedente, stabilita nel
1801-1808
dal
Concordat, lo stato appoggiava la
Chiesa cattolica, la
Chiesa luterana, la
Chiesa calvinista e la
Religione ebraica e forniva l'insegnamento scolastico delle suddette
(per ragioni storiche, questa situazione vige ancora nell'Alsazia-Mosella). Vedi anche:
[modifica] Curiosità
[modifica] Cultura
Il governo sta considerando la soppressione del lunedì di Pentecoste come festività pubblica (nel 2005 non lo fu, il caso rimane sospeso per il 2006).
[modifica] Voci correlate
[modifica] Classifiche internazionali
[modifica] Organizzazioni internazionaliLa Francia è membro di: Consiglio d'Europa, EBRD, NATO, OCDE, OSCE, PC, UE [modifica] Collegamenti esterni
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La Francia confina a N con il Mare del Nord, a NE con Belgio, Lussemburgo e
Germania, a E con Germania, Svizzera e Italia, a S con il Mar Mediterraneo e
Francia, a O con l’Oceano Atlantico e a NO con il Canale della Manica.
Affacciandosi su quattro mari, le coste francesi raggiungono uno sviluppo di
3400 km, notevolmente superiore a quello dei confini terrestri che è di 2000
km. I massicci più importanti della Francia sono quello Armoricano (Francia
nord-occidentale) e quello Centrale (Francia centro meridionale), minori
sono quelli delle Ardenne, Vosgi, Morvan e Mausen. Più giovani
geologicamente sono gli imponenti rilievi delle Alpi (con il Monte Bianco),
il Giura e i Pirenei. Mancano alla regione francese vaste ed uniformi
pianure mentre sono frequenti le zone di ondulazioni dolci e lievi. Notevoli
i corsi d’acqua che attraversano la Francia: il Reno e i suoi affluenti
alsaziani, la Senna e i suoi numerosi confluenti, la Marna e la Mosa quasi
priva di affluenti. Il Massiccio Centrale dà origine alla Loira, il più
lungo fiume francese; ad est del Massiccio Centrale scorre il Rodano con il
suo copioso affluente Saona e con i due riguardevoli fiumi alpini Isére e
Durance. Nella zona più meridionale del sistema alpino scendono fiumi
torrenziali alpini e mediterranei mentre verso il golfo del Leone
defluiscono quelli che scendono dai Pirenei.
http://www.paesionline.it/europa/francia_marsiglia/hotel_alberghi_marsiglia.asp
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| Thanks to www.travelpuppy.com |
| Paris &
Ile-de-France Paris & Ile-de-France - TravelPuppy.com Paris Paris is one of the world’s great cities with a practically endless amount of things to do, it rewards repeated and extended visits. Despite the massive size of the city, Paris is also an easily navigable destination as the city centre itself is relatively compact and all areas of Paris are connected by a highly efficient transport system, with the famous Paris Metro an attraction in itself. Paris boasts more than 80 museums and over 200 art galleries. La Carte is a pass providing free admission to about 60 national and municipal museums in and around the Paris area. The périphérique and boulevard circulaire ring roads roughly follow the line of the 19th-century city walls and within them are most of the well-known sights, shops and entertainments. Beyond the ring roads is an industrial and commercial belt, then a broad ring of suburbs, mostly of recent construction. Central Paris contains fine architecture from every period in a long and rich history, together with every amenity known to science and every entertainment yet devised. The oldest neighbourhood is the Île-de-la-Cité, an island on a bend in the Seine where the Parisii, a Celtic tribe, settled in about the 3rd century BC. The river was an effective defensive moat and the Parisii dominated the area for several centuries before being displaced by the Romans in about 52 BC. The island is today dominated by the newly renovated cathedral of Notre-Dame. Beneath it is the Crypte Archéologique, housing well-mounted displays of Paris’ early history. Having sacked the Celtic city, the Gallo-Romans abandoned the island and settled on the heights along the Rive Gauche (Left Bank), in the area now known as the Latin Quarter (Boulevards St Michel and St Germain). The naming of this district owes nothing to the Roman city: when the university was moved from the Cité to the left bank in the 13th century, Latin was the common language among the 10,000 students who gathered there from all over the known world. The Latin Quarter remains the focus of most student acivity,the Sorbonne is located here, and there are many fine bookshops and commercial art galleries. The Cluny Museum houses some of the finest medieval European tapestries to be found anywhere, including ‘The Field of the Cloth of Gold’. At the western end of the Boulevard St Germain is the Orsay Museum, a superb collection of 19th and early 20th century art located in a beautifully restored railway station. The other Left Bank attractions include the Panthéon, the Basilica of St Séverin, the Palais and Jardin du Luxembourg, the Hôtel des Invalides (containing Napoleon’s tomb), the Musée Rodin and St-Germain-des-Prés. Continuing westwards from the Quai d’Orsay past the Eiffel Tower and across the Seine onto the Right Bank, the visitor encounters collection of museums and galleries known as the Trocadéro, a popular meeting place for young Parisians. A short walk to the north is the Place Charles de Gaulle, known to Parisians as the Étoile and to tourists as the site of the Arc de Triomphe. It is also at the western end of that most elegant of avenues, the Champs-Élysées (Elysian Fields), which is once again famous for its cafes, commercial art galleries and sumptuous shops, rather than the dowdy airline offices and fast food joints that took it over for much of the 1980s and early 1990s. At the other end of the avenue, the powerful axis is continued by the Place de la Concorde, the Jardin des Tuileries and finally the Louvre. The Palais du Louvre has been extensively reorganised and reconstructed, the most controversial addition to the old palace being a pyramid with 673 panes of glass, which juxtaposes the ultra-modern with the classical façade of the palace. The best time to see the pyramid is after dark, when it is illuminated. The Richelieu Wing of the palace was inaugurated in 1993, marking the completion of the second stage of the redevelopment programme. In 1996, a labyrinth of subterranean galleries, providing display areas, a conference and exhibition centre, design shops and restaurants was opened. North of the Louvre are the Palais Royal, the Madeleine and l’Opéra. To the east is Les Halles, a shopping and commercial complex built on the site of the old food market. It is at the intersection of several métro lines and is a good starting point for a tour of Paris. There are scores of restaurants in the maze of small streets around Les Halles. Every culinary style is available at prices to suit every pocket. Further east, beyond the Boulevard Sébastopol, is the postmodern Georges Pompidou Centre of Modern Art also known as the ‘Beaubourg’. It provides a steady stream of surprises in its temporary exhibition spaces (which, informally, include the pavement outside where lively and often bizarre street-performers gather) and houses a permanent collection of 20th-century art. In the Marais district, are the Carnavalet and Picasso Museums, housed in magnificent town houses dating from the 16th and 18th centuries respectively. Still further east, the magnificent Bibliothèque François Mitterrand, one of the world’s most spectacular libraries, can be reached via a new métro connection (ligne 14) whose beautiful high-tech trains alone (they are constructed mainly of glass) are worth the trip. One of the best known districts in Paris, Montmartre, became almost unbearably popular and crowded after the success in 2001 of the Hollywood blockbuster Moulin Rouge. A funicular railway operates on the steepest part of the Montmartre hill, taking people to the outlandish Sacré-Coeur, a love it or hate it chocolate box architectural creation. Local entrepreneurs have long capitalised on Montmartre’s romantic reputation as an artist’s colony and if visitors today are disappointed to find it a well-run tourist attraction, they should bear in mind that it has been exactly that since it first climbed out of poverty in the 1890s. The legend of Montmartre as a dissolute cradle of talent was carefully stage-managed by Toulouse-Lautrec and others to fill their pockets and it rapidly transformed a notorious slum into an equally notorious circus. An earlier Montmartre legend concerns St Denis. After his martyrdom, he is said to have walked headless down the hill. The world’s first Gothic cathedral, St Denis, was constructed on the spot where he collapsed. Just north of Belleville (a working-class district that produced Edith Piaf and Maurice Chevalier) at La Villette, is one of Paris’ newer attractions, the City of Science and Technology. The most modern presentation techniques are used to illustrate both the history and the possible future of man’s inventiveness; season tickets are available. One of the great pleasures of Paris is the great number of sidewalk cafes, now glass-enclosed in wintertime, which extends people-watching to a year-round sport in any part of the city. There are as many Vietnamese and Chinese restaurants as there are French cafes. North African eating places also abound, and dozens of American Tex-Mex eateries are scattered throughout the city. Bric-a-brac or brocante is found in a number of flea markets (marché aux puces) on the outskirts of town, notably at the Porte de Clignancourt. There are several antique centres, Louvre des Antiquaires, Village Suisse, etc) where genuine antique furniture and other objects are on sale. Amongst the larger department stores are the Printemps and the Galeries Lafayette near the Opéra, the Bazar Hôtel de Ville (BHV) and the Samaritaine on the Right Bank and the Bon Marché on the Left Bank. The remains of the great forests of the Île-de-France (the area surrounding Paris) can still be seen at the magnificent châteaux of Versailles, Rambouillet and Fontainebleau on the outskirts of Paris. The capital’s nightlife has never looked healthier. The ‘beautiful people’ may have moved on to Menilmontant, but the bustling streets of Bastille are still a nocturnal playground for far more than just the tourists. Menilmontant itself rewards visitors prepared to venture beyond the guidebooks to discover the vibrant, hip, twenty-something scene. Disneyland Resort Paris The Disneyland Resort Paris, open year-round, lies to the east of the capital, a complete vacation destination located at Marne-la-Vallée , 32km (20 miles) from Paris. Disney’s European venture has become one of the continent’s most popular attractions. The site has an area of 1943 hectares (5000 acres), one-fifth the size of Paris, and includes hotels, a campsite, restaurants, shops and a golf course, and has as its star attractions the Disneyland Paris Theme Park and Walt Disney Studios. Inspired by previous theme parks, Euro Disneyland features all the famous Disney characters plus some new attractions especially produced to blend with its European home. The site is easily accessible by motorway, regional and high-speed rail services, and by air. ____________ France Business France Business Overview - TravelPuppy.com France Economy France has the fourth-largest economy in the world, after the USA, Germany, Japan, and has an annual per capita income of US$23,000. France has a wide industrial and commercial base, covering everything from agriculture to light and heavy industrial concerns, the most advanced technology and a burgeoning service sector. It is also Western Europe’s leading agricultural nation with over half of the country’s land area devoted to farming. Wheat is the most important crop, maize, sugar beet and barley are also produced in large quantities. The country is self-sufficient in these (which are produced in sufficient surplus for major exports) and the majority of other common crops. The livestock industry is expanding rapidly. France is one of the world’s leading wine producers. Despite the widespread belief in some quarters that French agriculture is inefficient, the sector has regularly turned in good profit margins and a sound export performance. French companies are prominent in many industries, particularly steel, motor vehicles, aircraft, mechanical and electrical engineering, chemicals, textiles, and food processing. In advanced industrial sectors, France has one of the world’s largest nuclear power industries, which meets nearly three-quarters of the country’s energy requirements, and is a world leader in computing and telecommunications. The service sector is dominated by tourism, which has long been a major foreign currency earner, although financial services have also grown rapidly since the early 1990s. Recent economic policy has been characterised by a gradual relinquishing of state holdings in ‘strategic’ industries as well as a steady reduction in government spending. Economic growth has been sluggish for the last 2.5 years, and is still below 1 per cent. France suffers from a relatively high unemployment rate of 9 per cent, which is climbing again after several years of decline. France was a founder member of the European Community and has benefited greatly from its participation. It was also a founder member of the European Monetary Union and adopted the euro upon its inception. The EU, especially Germany, Italy, Belgium, Spain and the UK, accounts for the bulk of French trade. Outside the European Union, the USA and Japan are its principal trading partners. Business Etiquette Conservative clothes are generally worn at business meetings in France. Prior appointments are expected and the use of business cards is usual. While a knowledge of French is a distinct advantage in business dealings, it is considered impolite to start a conversation in French and then have to revert to English. Business meetings tend to be formal and business decisions are taken only after lengthy discussion, with many facts and figures to back up sales presentations. Business entertaining is usually in restaurants. Avoid the holiday period of mid July to mid September for business visits. Office hours Generally Monday-Friday 0900 hrs -1200 hrs, 1400 hrs -1800 hrs. Commercial Information The following organisations can offer advice: Chambre de Commerce et d’Industrie de Paris, 27 Avenue de Friedland, 75382 Paris, Cedex 08 (telephone number: (1) 5565 5565, fax number: (1) 5565 7668, e-mail: del-paris@ccip.fr, website: www.ccip.fr) Centre de Renseignements des Douanes, 84 rue d’Hauteville, 75498 Paris (telephone number: (0825) 308 263, fax number: (1) 5324 6830, e-mail: crd-ile-de-france@douane.finances.gouv.fr website: www.douane.gouv.fr) and Assemblée des Chambres Francaises de Commerce et d’Industrie, 45 Avenue d’iena, 75116 Paris, Cedex 16 (telephone number: (1) 4069 3700; fax number: (1) 4720 6128, e-mail: mailto:contactsweb@acfci.cci.fr). Conferences/Conventions Paris is the world’s leading conference city, with the total amount of seating available of over 100,000 seats, exceeding that of any rival city. Also in demand are the Riviera towns of Nice and Cannes, the Acropolis Centre in Nice being the largest single venue in Europe, other centres are Lyon, Strasbourg and Marseille. The Business Travel Club (CFTAR) is a government-sponsored association of cities, departments, convention centres, hotels and other organisations interested in providing meeting facilities and incentives with over 80 members. Enquiries should be made through the French Government Tourist Office, which in several cities has a special department for business travel, these include London, Frankfurt/M, Düsseldorf, Milan, Madrid and Chicago. The following organisation can offer advice: Maison de la France, Conference and Incentive Department, 178 Piccadilly, London W1J 9AL (telephone number: (020) 7399 3521, fax number: (020) 7493 6594, e-mail: rachel.sobel@franceguide.com, website: www.franceguide.com). _____________France General Info France General Information - TravelPuppy.com Capital: Paris Area: 543,965 sq km (210,025 sq miles). Population of France: 59,481,919 (official estimate 2002). Population of Paris: 2,125,246 (1999). Population Density: 109.3 per sq km Geography: France, the largest country in Europe, is bordered to the north by the English Channel (La Manche), the northeast by Belgium and Luxembourg, the east by Germany, Switzerland and Italy, to the south by the Mediterranean (with Monaco as a coastal enclave between Nice and the Italian frontier), the southwest by Spain and Andorra, and the west by the Atlantic Ocean. The island of Corsica, southeast of Nice, is made up of two départements. The country offers a spectacular variety of scenery, from the mountain ranges of the Alps and Pyrénées to the attractive river valleys of the Loire, Rhône and Dordogne and the flatter countryside in Normandy and on the Atlantic coast. The country has some 2900km (1800 miles) of coastline. Government: Republic since 1792. Head of State: President Jacques Chirac since 1995. Head of Government: Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin since 2002. Language: French is the official language in France, but there are many regional dialects. Basque is spoken as a first language by some people in the southwest, and Breton by some in Brittany. Many people, particularly those connected with tourism in the major areas, will speak at least some English. Religion: Approximately 77% Roman Catholic with a Protestant minority. Time: GMT + 1 (GMT + 2 from last Sunday in March to last Sunday in October). Electricity: 220 volts AC, 50Hz. Two-pin plugs are widely used, adaptors recommended. _____________France Getting Around - Internal Travel France Internal Travel - Getting Around France - TravelPuppy.com Air Air France flies between Paris, from both Orly and Charles de Gaulle airports, and around 45 cities and towns. It also connects regional airports. For information, contact Air France (telephone number: (08) 2082 0820 (omit the 0 when dialling from abroad) or (0845) 359 1000 (within the UK only) . Details of independent airlines may be obtained from the French Government Tourist Office (see Contacts section). Sea There are almost 9000km (5600 miles) of navigable waterways in France, and all of these present great opportunities for holidays. The main canal areas are the north, where most of the navigable rivers are connected with canals, the Seine (from Auxerre to Le Havre, but sharing space with commercial traffic), the east, where the Rhine and Moselle and their tributaries are connected by canals, in Burgundy, where the Saône and many old and picturesque canals crisscross the region, the Rhône (a pilot is recommended below Avignon), the Midi (including the Canal du Midi, connecting the Atlantic with the Mediterranean), and Brittany and the Loire on the rivers Vilaine, Loire, Mayenne and Sarthe and the connecting canals. Each of these waterways offers a magnificent variety of scenery, a means of visiting many historic towns, villages and sites and, because of the slow pace (8kph/5mph), an opportunity to learn much about rural France. Cruising boats may be chartered with or without crews, ranging in size from the smallest cabin cruiser up to converted commercial barges (péniches), which can accommodate up to 24 people and require a crew of 8. Hotel boats, large converted barges with accommodation and restaurant, are also available in some areas, with a wide choice of price and comfort. For further information, contact the national or regional tourist board. State-run car ferries known as ‘BACs’ connect the larger islands on the Atlantic coast with the mainland and they also sail regularly across the mouth of the Gironde. The island of Corsica is served by ferries operated by the Société Nationale Maritime Corse-Mediterranée (SNCM), BP 90, 13472 Marseille Cedex 2 (telephone number: (0891) 701 801, fax number: (4) 9156 3586, e-mail: corso@sncm.fr. Services run from Marseille, Toulon and Nice to Ajaccio, Propriano, Porto Vecchio and Bastia on the island. Rail French Railways (SNCF) operate a nationwide network with 34,200km (21,250 miles) of line, over 12,000km (7500 miles) of which has been electrified. The TGV (Train à grande vitesse) runs from Paris to Brittany and southwest France at 300kph (186mph) and to Lyon and the southeast at 270kph (168mph). The SNCF is divided into five systems (East, North, West, Southeast and Southwest). The transport in and around Paris is the responsibility of a separate body, the RATP at 54 quai de la Rapée, 75599 Paris (telephone number: (1) 4468 2020). This organisation provides a fully integrated bus, rail and métro network for the capital. Rail tickets There are various kinds of tickets, including Family and Young Person’s Tickets, offering reductions which can usually be purchased in France. In general, the fares charged will depend on what day of the week and what time of the day one is travelling, timetables giving further details are available from SNCF offices. It is essential to validate (composter) tickets bought in France by using the orange automatic date-stamping machine at the platform entrance. There is a range of special tickets on offer to foreign visitors, they usually have to be bought before entering France and some are only available in North America, others are unique to Australia and New Zealand. There are also special European Rail and Drive packages. For more information, contact your local French Government Tourist Office (see Contact Addresses section). Motorail Services are operated from Boulogne, Calais, Dieppe and Paris to all main holiday areas in both summer and winter. Motorail information and booking is available from Rail Europe (telephone number: (08705) 848 848. Road Traffic drives on the right. France has over 9000km (5600 miles) of motorways/(autoroutes, some of which are free whilst others are toll-roads (autoroutes à péage). Prices vary depending on the route, and caravans are extra. There are more than 28,500km (17,700 miles) of national roads (routes nationales). Motorways bear the prefix ‘A’ and national roads ‘N’. Minor roads (marked in yellow on the Michelin road maps) are maintained by the départements rather than by the Government and are classed as ‘D’ roads. It is a good idea to avoid travelling any distance by road on the last few days of July/first few days of August and the last few days of August/first few days of September, as during this time the bulk of the holiday travel takes place and the roads can be jammed for miles. A sign bearing the words Sans Plomb on a petrol pump shows that it dispenses unleaded petrol. The Bison Futé map provides practical information and is available from the French Government Tourist Office. Bus Information on services may be obtained from local tourist offices. Local services outside the towns and cities are generally adequate. Car hire A list of agencies can be obtained at local tourist offices, Syndicats d’Initiative or Offices de Tourisme. Fly-drive arrangements are available through all the major airlines. French Railways (SNCF) also offer reduced train/car hire rates. Caravans These may be imported for stays of up to 6 months. There are special requirements for cars towing caravans which must be observed and cars towing caravans are prohibited to drive within the boundaries of the périphérique (the Paris ring road). Contact the French Government Tourist Office for more information. Regulations The minimum age for hiring a car in France ranges from 21 to 25 depending on the company, some companies may also include additional charges for drivers under 25. The maximum age limit is generally 70. Speed limits are 50kph (31mph) in built-up areas, 90kph (56mph) outside built-up areas, 110kph (68mph) on dual carriageways separated by a central reservation, and 130kph (81mph) on motorways. Visitors who have held a driving licence for less than two years may not travel faster than 80kph (56mph) on normal roads, 100kph (62mph) on dual carriageways and 110kph (68mph) on motorways. The police in France can and do fine motorists on the spot for driving offences such as speeding. Random breath tests for drinking and driving are common. Seat belts must be worn by all front- and rear-seat passengers. Under-10s may not travel in the front seat. Priorité à droite: particularly in built-up areas, the driver must give way to anyone coming out of a side-turning on the right. The priorité rule no longer applies at most roundabouts and the driver should now give way to cars which are already on the roundabout with the signs vous n’avez pas la priorité or cedez le passage, but watch for signs and still exercise great caution. All roads of any significance outside built-up areas have right of way, known as Passage Protégé, and will normally be marked by signs consisting either of an ‘X’ on a triangular background with the words ‘Passage Protégé’ underneath, or a broad arrow, or a yellow diamond. A red warning triangle must be carried for use in the event of a breakdown. All headlamp beams must be adjusted for rightside driving by use of beam deflectors or (on some cars) by tilting the headlamp bulbholder. For further details on driving in France, a brochure called The Traveller in France is available from French Government Tourist Offices and must be ordered by telephone (see Contact Addresses section). It contains a section on motoring. Documentation A national driving licence is acceptable. An international sign, distinguishing your country of origin (eg GB sticker or plate), should be positioned clearly on the vehicle. EU nationals taking their own cars to France are strongly advised to obtain a Green Card. Without it, insurance cover is limited to the minimum legal cover in France; the Green Card tops this up to the level of cover provided by the car owner’s domestic policy. The car’s registration document must also be carried. Urban Urban public transport is excellent. There are comprehensive bus systems in all the larger towns. There are also tramways, trolleybuses and an underground in Marseille, trolleybuses, an underground and a funicular in Lyon, and automated driverless trains in Lille, where there is also a tramway. There are tramway services in St Etienne and Nantes and trolleybuses in Grenoble, Limoges and Nancy. The systems are easy to use, with pre-purchase tickets and passes. Good publicity material and maps are usually available. Paris The RATP (Régie Autonome des Transports Parisiens) controls the underground (métro), rail (RER) and bus services in and around Paris. The public transport network is split into several different fare zones and a single ticket will allow travel on any of the systems within that zone (although interchange is only permitted on the métro and RER, and not on buses). Some other useful transport links provided by the RATP include: Orlybus and Roissybus (special buses operating to Orly airport and Roissy Charles de Gaulle airport) Orlyval (rail service linking RER stations of Antony and Orly airport) and Montmartre funicular (special railway connecting the foot of Montmartre to the top, near the Sacré-Coeur church). Métro This was built during the Paris Exhibition in 1900. Its dense network of 14 lines in the central area makes the métro the ideal way to get about in Paris. Trains run from approximately 0530 hrs -0115 hrs. Rail RER (fast suburban services) operate five main lines connecting most areas of the capital. There is also an extensive network of conventional suburban services run by French Railways (SNCF), with fare structure and ticketing integrated with the other modes of public transport. Bus A comprehensive network operates within Paris. Services include PC buses that run around the outskirts of Paris, Noctambus services which run through the night, Balabus services which run between La Défense and the Gare du Lyon, navigating around La Seine and major tourist attractions; Monmatrobus services that run from Pigalle to Mairie du XVIII Jules Joffrin via Montmartre. Sightseeing tourist buses l’Opentour and Paris Trip. Special tickets Disneyland Passeport offers a combined ticket price of RER travel and entrance fee to the theme park at a reduced rate. Paris Visite Pass offers superb value for money with a choice of unlimited travel on the entire RATP network (métro, RER, bus etc) for a period of one to five days. A variety of discounts are available wih the pass such as reduced prices at certain museums, cinemas, restaurants and shops. Paris transport tickets can be bought in the UK from Allo France (telephone number: (08702) 405 903). All other tickets can be purchased from the RATP Tourist Office at 54 quai de la Rapée, 75599 Paris (telephone number: (1) 4468 2020 or (08) 9268 7714 (within France only) or from 50 of the métro stations, all mainline railway stations and certain banks. Children under 4 years of age travel free on buses and underground, while children between 4 and 11 years travel half price. Taxi Day and night rates are shown inside each taxi. There are extra charges on journeys to and from racecourses, stations and airports and for luggage. Private car Parking is now prohibited in many areas in the centre of Paris. Otherwise there are parking meters or parking time is restricted (zone bleue). Car parks charging a fee are plentiful all over the city and on the outskirts. _______________ France Getting There - International Travel France International Travel - TravelPuppy.com Air The national airline is Air France (AF). Many airlines operate to France, including an increasing number of low-cost airlines from the UK. Departure tax: None. France’s principal international airports are detailed below: Note: Facilities at the airports listed below are all of a high international standard and include bank/bureaux de change, duty-free shops, restaurants and bars. There are also small airports with some international flights at Biarritz, Caen, Deauville (St Gatien), Le Havre, Montpellier, Morlaix, Rennes and Quimper. Paris-Charles de Gaulle (CDG) Also known as Roissy-Charles de Gaulle, (website: www.adp.fr) is 23km (14 miles) northeast of the city, travel time is approxd 40 minutes. Taxis are readily available and journeys to the centre cost around €38. An airport limousine service can also be hired for approximately €90. Roissybus services operate from the airport to Place de l’Opéra between 0545 hrs - 2300 hrs every 15 minutes. The Fare is approximately €8 and takes approximately 1 hour. Air France coaches run from Étoile via Porte Maillot, from Montparnasse via Gare de Lyon and from Orly Airport to Roissy-Charles de Gaulle. Services run every 12-20 minutes and take 40-50 minutes. Fares are approximately €11. The airport is also easily accessible by train on the RER B line or SNCF with connecting ADP shuttle bus. Paris-Orly (ORY) Paris-Orly is 14km (9 miles) south of Paris. Coaches and buses run to the city every 12 minutes, travel time is approx 25 minutes, from outside Orly Ouest. Taxis are available. RER B and C trains run every 15 minutes via Saint-Michel and the travel time is approx 30 minutes. Bordeaux (BOD) (Merignac) Bordeaux Airport is 12km (8 miles) west of the city. Coaches, buses and taxis to the city are available. Lille (LIL) (Lesquin) Lille Airport is 12km (8 miles) southeast of the city. Coaches and taxis are available to the city. Lyon (LYS) (Lyon-Saint-Exupéry) Lyon (LYS) (Lyon-Saint-Exupéry) is 25km (15 miles) east of the city. Coaches or taxis are available to the city. Marseille (MRS) (Marseille-Marignane) Marseille (MRS) (Marseille-Marignane) is 30km (19 miles) northwest of the city. A coach service departs to the city and taxis are available. Nice (NCE) (Nice-Côte d’Azur) Nice (NCE) (Nice-Côte d’Azur) is 6km (4 miles) west of the city. Buses depart every 20 minutes. Taxis to the city are available. Nantes (NTE) Nantes (NTE) is 15km (9 miles) south of the city. Trains and buses depart frequently to the city. Strasbourg (SXB) Strasbourg (SXB) is 16km (10 miles) southwest of the city travel time is approx 15-30 minutes. Trams and taxis are available to the city. Toulouse (TLS) (Blagnac) Toulouse (TLS) (Blagnac) is 10km (6 miles) northwest of the city. Buses to the city depart every 20 minutes. Taxis are available to the city. Facilities at the airports listed above are all of a high international standard and include bank/bureaux de change, duty-free shops, restaurants and bars. There are also small airports with some international flights at Biarritz, Caen, Deauville (St Gatien), Le Havre, Montpellier, Morlaix, Rennes and Quimper. Sea The following companies run regular cross-channel services: P&O Stena Line (tel: (08705) 202 020) from Dover to Calais (travel time approx 1 hour 15 minutes) P&O Portsmouth (telephone number: (08705) 202 020) from Portsmouth to Le Havre (travel time approx 5 hours 30 minutes during the day and eight hours at night) and from Portsmouth to Cherbourg (travel time approx five hours during the day and eight hours at night). Seafrance (telephone number: (08705) 711 711 from Dover to Calais (travel time – 1 hour 30 minutes). Hoverspeed Fast Ferries (telephone number: (0870) 240 8070, e-mail: reservations@hoverspeed.co.uk, from Dover to Calais (travel time approx 50 minutes by seacat) and from Newhaven to Dieppe (travel time – 2 hours 15 minutes by seacat). Brittany Ferries (telephone number: (08703) 665 333) from Plymouth to Roscoff (travel time approx 6 hours), from Portsmouth to St Malo (travel time approx 8 hours 45 minutes to the UK, 11 hours to France), from Portsmouth to Caen (travel time approx six hours) and from Poole to Cherbourg (travel time approx 4 hours 15 minutes by ferry or, in the high season, 2 hours 15 minutes by seacat). Condor Ferries (telephone number: (01202) 207 207) from Poole and Weymouth to St Malo (via Guernsey and Jersey) (travel time approx 4 hours 30 minutes and 5 hours 30 minutes respectively), from Guernsey to St Malo (travel time approx 2 hours 40 minutes) and from Jersey to St Malo (travel time approx 1 hour 10 minutes). These companies offer a variety of promotional fares and inclusive holidays for short breaks and shopping trips. Passenger and roll-on/roll-off ferry links to and from North Africa, Corsica and Sardinia are provided by Southern Ferries/Société Nationale Maritime Corse-Mediterranée (SNCM) (website: www.sncm.fr) (see Getting Around section). Rail International trains run from the channel ports and Paris to destinations throughout Europe. For up-to-date routes and timetables, contact French Railways (SNCF) (telephone number: (1) 5342 0000) or in the UK, Rail Europe (telephone number: (08705) 848 848). The Channel Tunnel Eurostar is a service provided by the railways of France, Belgium, and the UK, operating direct high-speed trains from London (Waterloo International) to Paris (Gare du Nord) and to Brussels (Midi/Zuid). It takes 3 hours from London to Paris (via Lille). When the high-speed rail link from London through Kent to the tunnel is fully operational (January 2007), the travel time between the two capitals will be reduced to 2 hours 15 minutes. The Eurostar trains are equipped with standard-class and first-class seating, buffet, bar and telephones, and are staffed by multi-lingual, highly-trained personnel. The pricing is competitive with the airlines, and seats range from Premium First and Business to Standard. Children aged between 4 and 11 years benefit from a special fare in first class as well as in standard class. Children under 4 years old travel free but cannot be guaranteed a seat. Wheelchair users and blind passengers together with one companion get a special fare. For further information and reservations, contact Eurostar (telephone number: (0870) 600 0792 (travel agents) or (08705) 186 186 (public; within the UK) or +44 (1233) 617 575 (public outside the UK), Rail Europe (telephone number: (08705) 848 848). Travel agents can obtain refunds for unused tickets from Eurostar Trade Refunds, 2nd Floor, Kent House, 81 Station Road, Ashford, Kent TN23 1PD. Complaints and comments may be sent to Eurostar Customer Relations, Eurostar House, Waterloo Station, London SE1 8SE (telephone number: (020) 7928 5163, e-mail: new.comments@eurostar.co.uk). General enquiries and information requests must be made by telephone. Road There are numerous and excellent road links with all neighbouring countries. Eurolines (52 Grosvenor Gardens, London, SW1W 0AU, telephone number: (08705) 143 219) and National Express (Ensign Court, 4 Vicarage Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 3ES, telephone number: 08705 808 080) run regular coach services to France from the UK. The Channel Tunnel All road vehicles are carried through the tunnel in shuttle trains running between the two terminals, one near Folkestone in Kent, with direct road access from the M20, and one just outside Calais with links to the A16/A26 motorway (Exit 13). Each shuttle is made up of 12 single and 12 double deck carriages, and vehicles are directed to carriages depending on their height. There are facilities for cars and motorcycles, minibuses, coaches, caravans, campervans and other vehicles over 1.85m (6.07ft). Bicycles are also provided for and passengers generally travel with their vehicles. Heavy goods vehicles are carried on special shuttles with a separate passenger coach for the drivers. Terminals and shuttles are well-equipped for disabled passengers. The passenger terminal buildings contain a variety of shops, restaurants, bureaux de change and other amenities. Journey time is about 35 minutes from platform to platform and around approx one hour from motorway to motorway. Eurotunnel runs up to four passenger shuttles per hour at peak times, 24 hours per day. Services run every day of throughout the year. For further information about departure times of shuttles at the French terminal, contact Eurotunnel Customer Information in Coquelle (telephone number: France (3) 2100 6543). Motorists pass through customs and immigration before they board, with no further checks on arrival. Fares are charged according to length of stay and time of year and whether or not you have a reservation. The price applies to the car, regardless of the number of passengers or size of the car. Promotional deals are frequently available, especially outside the peak holiday seasons. Tickets may be purchased in advance from travel agents, or from Eurotunnel Customer Services in France or the UK with a credit card. For further information, brochures and reservations, contact Eurotunnel Customer Services UK, Customer Relations Department, Saint Martin's Plain, Cheriton, Folkestone, Kent CT19 4QD (telephone number: (08705) 353 535). ______________ France History France History - TravelPuppy.com After the disintegration of the Roman Empire in the fifth century, Gaul was settled by Germanic peoples from the east. After the collapse of the Visigothic Merovingian kingdom, Gaul in the eighth and ninth centuries became the heart of Charlemagne’s Frankish empire, which stretched from the Pyrénées to the Baltic. During the following centuries, the area under the control of the French kings gradually increased, although it was not until the reign of Louis VI (1108-37) that royal authority became more than an empty theory in parts of France, whose rulers were vassals in name only. Among the most powerful of these were the Dukes of Normandy who had, by the mid-12th century, acquired England and western France. In 1328, the direct line of the Capetian royal house became extinct and one of the claimants to the throne was Edward III of England. The resulting intermittent conflict, known as the Hundred Years’ War, was not resolved until the final English defeat in 1453. The period of French recovery is associated with the reign of the astute Louis XI (1460-83) and by the time of his death the area of France was much as it is today. During the late 15th and 16th centuries, France was again distracted by foreign adventures, including the Italian Wars and several other grandiose pan-European schemes initiated by François I, and internal troubles including the Wars of Religion. This latter conflict was ended by the accession of the gifted Henry IV, a Protestant-turned-Catholic. Henry was assassinated in 1610, but his work of building up the power of the French state continued under the administrations firstly of Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin and subsequently the long reign of the ‘Sun King’, Louis XIV (1643-1715), by which time the country had replaced Spain as the major European power. The 18th century was a period of great colonial expansion, and France again became involved in conflicts with England and this time over their possessions in the New World. The reign of Louis XV (1715-74) was in general a time of great prosperity in France, but the age also witnessed a widening gap between rich and the poor. The inequality of the taxation system, in particular the aristocratic and clerical exemption from the taille (tax), the lack of political representation for the increasingly wealthy middle class and the inefficiency and profligacy of central government were but three of the underlying causes of the French Revolution of 1789 which overthrew Louis XVI. One of the great driving issues of the Revolution, the equality of the individual before the law, proved to be a significant, often decisive source of political contention in Europe for the next century. The Government of the last years of the 18th century was very unstable, unpopular and impoverished, and was overthrown in 1799 by a rising army commander named Napoleon Bonaparte. After five years as consul, Napoleon was declared Emperor and embarked on a military campaign to establish a French empire in Europe. Defeat at Trafalgar at the hands of Nelson in 1805 left Britain in command of the sea, but on land Napoléon scored a series of stunning victories over the next seven years, defeating the Prussians, Austrians and Russians. By 1812, the French empire extended beyond France to take in northwest Italy and the Low Countries, while the Confederation of the Rhine, Switzerland, Spain and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw were dependent states. Napoléon’s fortunes went into decline after the ill-fated invasion of Russia in April 1812 in which 600,000 men, were driven back westwards and destroyed six months later. Napoléon was forced into exile, his armies and empire dismantled by the Austrians and British. He temporarily escaped imprisonment and returned to France, where he was welcomed as a hero. This brief ‘Hundred Days’ came to an end when Napoléon, his previous military prowess much diminished by time and physical infirmity, was defeated at Waterloo by the Duke of Wellington. With the end of Napoléon, the monarchy was restored and remained until the uprising of 1848 led by workers and radical students. Although the insurrection was crushed within a few months, the monarchy was again overthrown and the Second Republic declared. Four years later, the army intervened and instituted the Second Empire with Louis Napoléon (a nephew of the first Emperor Napoléon) as Emperor, seizing dictatorial power. The Second Empire (1852-70) further expanded France’s colonial possessions, while at home the repression was eased during the 1860s. In 1870, the regime obtained a popular mandate by referendum. France now faced a new enemy in the emerging power of Germany. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1 ended in defeat for the French and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine by the Germans. The Third Republic, which was established in France after 1871, maintained an uneasy peace with its new powerful neighbour and sought succour in the Entente Cordiale with Britain. As events proved, the elaborate diplomatic designs of the late 19th and early 20th century in Europe were too fragile to guarantee peaceful co-existence in Europe. The interlocking network of treaties and alliances finally collapsed in August 1914 following the assassination of Grand Duke Ferdinand in Sarajevo. This was the trigger for World War I. Like all the main protagonists, France lost huge numbers of troops to the conflict, as the gap between military technology and tactical thinking led to unprecedented mass slaughter. As one of the eventual victors, France recovered Alsace-Lorraine as a result of the Treaty of Versailles and introduced a new electoral system, still under the Third Republic, based on proportional representation. The inter-war years saw the election of a series of socialist governments and an increasing preoccupation with Germany and the deteriorating European situation. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, France, which had previously committed itself to an alliance with the Poles, declared war on Germany. The Third Republic collapsed with the German invasion of 1940, after which France endured 4 years of Nazi occupation. During this period, the country was divided between a northern government under direct German control based in Paris, and the collaborationist Vichy administration, led by World War I leader Marshal Pétain, and based in the southern spa town of the same name. In 1946, two years after liberation from Nazi rule, the Fourth Republic was established, but came to an end in 1958 as a result of the Algerian crisis. Then a French colony, Algeria was wracked by a civil war which caused bitter divisions from top to bottom in French society and ultimately destabilised the government. The Fifth Republic which followed has lasted from 1958 up until the present day. The constitution that underpins it is characterised by the strong executive powers vested in the presidency, typified by the first holder of the office, General de Gaulle, the wartime leader of the anti-Nazi government in exile. The Fifth Republic was itself almost overthrown in 1968 by a radical alliance of students and industrial workers. By way of reaction, conservative presidents and centre-right majorities in the National Assembly governed France throughout the 1970s. But in 1981, the Socialist François Mitterrand won the presidential election, the first time the party’s candidate had been victorious. In May 1988, he was re-elected for a second term. Under ‘Ton-ton’ (Uncle) Mitterrand and his conservative Gaullist successor, Jacques Chirac , the French pursued their customary activist and occasionally maverick foreign policy. Its major commitment is to the European Union, and especially relations with Germany. After some initial uncertainty about the consequences of German reunification in 1991, the Franco-German axis has continued to be the driving force behind the EU’s progress towards economic and political harmonisation. France has also been, a keen proponent of EU expansion. France is still active in almost every other part of the world. This arises from a combination of historical reasons, colonies and a self-image as a nuclear and world power, coupled with a desire to confront a perceived Anglo-American pursuit of global hegemony. French suspicions of the USA are a common feature of the international diplomatic environment. In no case was this more apparent than the 2003 Anglo-American invasion of Iraq, to which the French were the leading opponent. As a permanent member of the UN Security Council, with the power of veto, the French carry decisive influence in that forum and used it to the full. The French position was widely supported by the other Security Council members, but has caused a major diplomatic rift with the United States and (to a lesser extent) Britain. The French continue to maintain a significant economic and military presence in some of their former colonies, especially in Africa where there has been a number of military interventions, and substantial influence in many others. The principal economic instrument was the ‘Franc Zone’ under which many francophone African countries, mainly in West Africa, linked their currencies to the French Franc. France remains a principal player in events in places as far apart as Rwanda, Algeria and the Pacific island group of New Caledonia. It has also been engaged, in conjunction with other allied forces, in Lebanon, Kuwait (during the Gulf War) and in the Balkans. The intervention in New Caledonia, initially a counter-insurgency operation against pro-independence guerrillas, later became especially controversial owing to the use of the islands as a base for French nuclear tests in 1995. The resumption of the tests countermanded an existing moratorium imposed by President Mitterand and attracted huge public and international criticism. The test programme was ended permanently in January 1996. The decision to resume testing was one of the first decisions taken by Mitterand’s successor, the centre-right Gaullist Jacques Chirac. Formerly both mayor of Paris and Prime Minister, Chirac had succeeded Mitterand as president in 1995 after a narrow victory over the Socialist challenger Lionel Jospin. Chirac is now in his ninth year as president after winning the most recent presidential election in 2002, which will keep him in office until 2009. This latter poll was notable for the strong performance of the neo-fascist Front National (FN) leader Jean-Marie le Pen, who came second in the first round of voting. There has always been an extreme right current in post-war French politics, from the Poujadiste movement of the 1950s, through the post-imperial pieds noirs of the 1960s to the present-day FN (formed in 1972) with its focus on crime and immigration shared with other successful European far-right parties. 2002 also saw the centre-right, operating under the umbrella banner of the Union for a Presidential Majority, regain control of the national Assembly, bringing to an end five years of “co-habitation”. A new government took office under premier Jean-Pierre Raffarin. Co-habitation, the situation where the presidency and the national assembly are in the hands of different parties, was virtually unknown in French politics until the Mitterand era. Since then, it has become relatively common, between 1997 and 2002, the national assembly was controlled by Parti Socialiste (PS) under Lionel Jospin. (Jospin later contested the 2002 presidential election for the Socialists, coming a humiliating third behind the national front. In 2002, the umbrella grouping Union for a Presidential Majority, secured a majority for the centre-right in the national assembly, bringing co-habitation to an end for the time being. ___________France Public Holidays France Public Holidays - TravelPuppy.com Year 2007 January 1 April 9 May 1 May 8 May 17 May 28 July 14 August 15 November 1 November 11 December 25 New Year’s Day Easter Monday Labour Day 1945 Victory Day Ascension Whit Monday Bastille Day Assumption Nov 1 All Saints’ Day Remembrance Day Christmas Day Note: In France during the months of July and August are traditionally when the French take their holidays. For this reason, the less touristic parts of France are very quiet during these months, while the coastal resorts, especially in the south, are very crowded . _____________France Social Profile France Culture and Social Profile - TravelPuppy.com Food and Drink France has a more varied and developed cuisine than any other country with possibly the exception of China. The simple, delicious cooking for which France is very famous is found in the old-fashioned bistro and restaurant. There are two distinct styles of eating in France. One is of course gastronomy (haute cuisine), widely known and honoured as a cult with rituals, rules and taboos. It is rarely practised in daily life, mainly because of the cost and the time which must be devoted to produce it. The other is family-style cooking, often just as delicious as its celebrated counterpart. Almost all restaurants offer two types of meal, à la carte (extensive choice for each course and more expensive) and le menu (a set meal at a fixed price with dishes selected from the full à la carte menu). At simple restaurants, the same cutlery will be used for all courses. The bill (l’addition) will not be presented until it is asked for, even if clients sit and talk for half an hour after they have finished eating. Many restaurants close for a month during the summer, and a day a week. It is always wise to check that a restaurant is open, particularly on Sunday. Generally speaking, mealtimes in France are strictly observed. Lunch is as a rule served from 1200 hrs to 1330 hrs, dinner usually from 2000 hrs -2130 hrs, but the larger the city, the later the dining hour. Dishes include: tournedos (small steaks ringed with bacon), châteaubriand, entrecôte (rib steak) served with béarnaise (tarragon-flavoured sauce with egg base); and gigot de présalé (leg of lamb roasted or broiled) served with flageolets (light green beans) or pommes dauphines (deep-fried mashed potato puffs). Other dishes include: brochettes (combinations of cubed meat or seafood on skewers, alternating with mushrooms, onions or tomatoes); ratatouille niçoise (stew of courgettes, tomatoes and aubergines braised with garlic in olive oil), pot-au-feu (beef boiled with vegetables and served with coarse salt), and blanquette de veau (veal stew with mushrooms in a white wine/cream sauce). In the north of France (Nord/Pas de Calais and Picardy), fish and shellfish are the star features in menus, oysters, moules (mussels), coques (cockles) and crevettes (shrimps) are extremely popular. In Picardy, duck pâtés and ficelle picarde (ham and mushroom pancake) are popular. In the Champagne-Ardenne region, there are the hams of Rheims and sanglier (wild boar). Among the fish specialities in this area are écrevisses (crayfish) and brochets (pike). Alsace and Lorraine are the lands of choucroute (sauerkraut) and kugelhof (a special cake), quiche lorraine and tarte flambée (onion tart). Spicy and distinctive sauces are the hallmark of Breton food, and shellfish is a speciality of the region, particularly homard à l’armoricaine (lobster with cream sauce). Lyon, the main city of the Rhône Valley, is the heartland of French cuisine, though the food is often more rich than elaborate. A speciality of this area is quenelles de brochet (pounded pike formed into sausage shapes and usually served with a rich crayfish sauce). Bordeaux rivals Lyon as gastronomic capital of France. Aquitaine cuisine (in the south west of France) is based on goosefat. A reference to ‘Périgord’ will indicate a dish containing truffles. Basque chickens are specially reared. In the Pyrénées, especially around Toulouse, visitors will find salmon and cassoulet, a hearty dish with beans and preserved meat. General de Gaulle once asked, with a certain amount of pride, how it was possible to rule a country which produced 365 different kinds of cheese, some of the better known are Camembert, Brie, Roquefort, Reblochon and blue cheeses from Auvergne and Bresse. Desserts include: soufflé grand-marnier, oeufs à la neige (meringues floating on custard), mille feuilles (layers of flaky pastry and custard cream); Paris-Brest (a large puff-pastry with hazelnut cream), ganache (chocolate cream biscuit); and fruit tarts and flans. The tourist office publishes a guide to restaurants in Paris and the Île-de-France. Wine is by far the most popular alcoholic drink in France, and the choice will vary according to region. Cheap wine (vin ordinaire) can either be very palatable or undrinkable, but there is no certain way of establishing which this is likely to be before drinking. Wines are classified into AC (Appellation Contrôlée), VDQS (Vin delimité de qualité superieure), Vin de Pays and Vin de Table. There are several wine-producing regions in France some of the more notable are Bordeaux, Burgundy, Loire, Rhône and Champagne. In elegant restaurants, the wine list will be separate from the main menu, but in less opulent establishments will be printed on the back or along the side of the carte. The waiter will usually be glad to advise an appropriate choice. In expensive restaurants, this will be handled by a sommelier or wine steward. If in doubt, try out the house wine, this will usually be less expensive and will always be the owner’s pride. Coffee is always served after the meal, and will always be black, in small cups, unless a café au lait (or crème) is requested. Liqueurs such as Chartreuse, Framboise and Genepi (an unusual liqueur made from an aromatic plant) are available. Many of these liqueurs, such as eau de vie and calvados (apple brandy) are very strong and should be treated with respect, particularly after a few glasses of wine. A good rule of thumb is to look around and see what the locals are drinking. Spirit measures are usually doubles unless a baby is specifically asked for. There is also a huge variety of aperitifs available. A typically French drink is pastis, such as Ricard or Pernod. The region of Nord/Pas de Calais and Picardy does not produce wine, but brews beer and cider. Alsace is said to brew the best beer in France but fruity white wines, such as Riesling, Traminer and Sylvaner, and fine fruit liqueurs, such as Kirsch and Framboise, are also produced in this area. The wines from the Champagne region of the Montagne de Rheims district are firm and delicate (Vevenay Verzy), or full-bodied and ful-flavoured (Bouzy and Ambonnay). The legal age for drinking alcohol in a bar/cafe is 18. Minors are allowed to go into bars if accompanied by an adult but they will not be served alcohol. Opening hours depend on the proprietor but generally bars in major towns and resorts are open throughout the day and some may still be open at 0200 hrs. Smaller towns tend to shut earlier. There are also all-night bars and cafes. Shopping Special purchases in France include lace, crystal glass, cheeses, coffee and, of course, wines, spirits and liqueurs. Arques, the home of Crystal D’Arques, is situated between St Omer and Calais, en route to most southern destinations. Lille, the main town of French Flanders, is known for its textiles, particularly fine lace. Most towns have fruit and vegetable markets on Saturday. Hypermarkets, enormous supermarkets which sell everything from foodstuffs and clothes to hi-fi equipment and furniture, are widespread in France. They tend to be situated just outside of town and all have parking facilities. Shopping hours: Department stores are open Monday-Saturday 0900 hrs-1830 hrs. Some shops are closed between 1200 hrs-1430 hrs. Food shops are open 0700 hrs -1830/1930 hrs. Some food shops (particularly bakers) are open Sunday mornings, in which case they will probably close Monday. Many shops close all day or Monday afternoon. Hypermarkets are normally open until 2100 hrs or 2200 hrs. Special Events For details of events and festivals throughout France, contact the French Tourist Office. The following is a selection of special events occurring in France in 2005: Until February 3rd Nativity, Notre-Dame Cathedral, Paris January 8th-9th Kandahar - Alpine Skiing World Cup January 15th-March 8th Dunkerque Carnival January 28th-February 5th International Film Festival. February 12th-27th Nice Carnival April 10th Marathon, Paris May Jazz Under the Apple Trees (one of Normandy’s most important annual music events), Coutances May 21st-22nd Monaco Grand Prix June 21st Summer Solstice and Music Festivals, countrywide July Tour de France July 13th-14th Bastille Day Celebrations September27th-October 10th International Festival of Theatre, Music and Literature, Limosin. Social Conventions: Handshaking and, more familiarly, kissing both cheeks, are the usual forms of greeting. The form of personal address is simply Monsieur or Madame without a surname and it may take time to get on first-name terms. At more formal dinners, it is the most important guest or host who gives the signal to start eating. Meal times are often a long, leisurely experience. Casual wear is common but the French are renowned for their stylish sportswear and dress sense. Social functions, some clubs, casinos and exclusive restaurants warrant more formal attire. Evening wear is normally specified where required. Topless sunbathing is tolerated on most beaches but naturism is restricted to certain beaches and the local tourist offices will advise where these are. Smoking is prohibited on public transport and in cinemas and theatres. Tobacconists display a red sign in the form of a double cone. A limited choice of brands can be found in restaurants and bars. Tipping A 12 to 15% service charge is normally added to the bill in hotels, restaurants and bars, but it is customary to leave small change with the payment and more if the service has been exceptional. Other services such as washroom attendants, beauticians, hairdressers and cinema ushers expect tips. Taxi drivers expect 10 to 15% of the meter fare |
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GNU Free Documentation License Esso utilizza materiale tratto da http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letteratura_francese Cronologia/Autori: http://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Letteratura_francese&action=history Letteratura francese
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La letteratura francese può essere considerata come l'insieme delle opere scritte da autori di nazionalità francese e/o di lingua francese. Si considera in generale che cominci nel Medioevo fino a giungere ai giorni nostri. I generi più importanti della letteratura francese sono il teatro, la poesia, la prosa narrativa e l'autobiografia. Alcuni dei suoi rappresentanti più noti sono Racine, Voltaire, Hugo, Balzac, Flaubert, Baudelaire, Zola, Proust, Céline, Camus. La letteratura francese nel Medioevo [modifica]
Le origini della lingua francese, o meglio dei dialetti romanzi in terra di Francia, non sono dissimili da quelle degli altri dialetti o lingue neolatine. Su tutte queste parlate, che appunto per la loro derivazione del latino si chiamavano "romaniche" o "romanze", per varie ragioni, politiche o letterarie, due si affermano già nell'XI secolo, in modo da meritare il nome di lingue: la "langue d'oc", nel sud della Francia (centro principale era la Provenza); e la "langue d'oïl" nel nord, la quale era semplicemente in origine il dialetto dell'Île-de-France ("oc" e "oïl" erano le due forme del nostro "sì" nelle due lingue). La "lingua d'oc" ebbe una letteratura tutta sua (chiamata Poesia Provenzale), e dopo quasi tre secoli di gloriosa fioritura decadde a dialetto. La lingua d'"oïl" si estese invece fino a divenire la lingua di tutta la Francia. Perciò secondo alcuni letteratura francese medievale è, in senso proprio, la sola letteratura del nord. All'XI secolo risalgono i primi lunghi componimenti
poetici conosciuti come
chansons de geste, che raccontavano le gesta eroiche dei cavalieri
cristiani: erano composti e cantati da menestrelli chiamati jongleurs che
intrattenevano le corti feudali. La letteratura francese nel XVI secolo [modifica]Il Rinascimento giunge in Francia a seguito della campagna militare del re Francesco I in Italia. Il monarca, affascinato dall'arte e dalla cultura della penisola, si fa promotore di un rinnovamento artistico e letterario che pure era già cominciato, all'inizio del secolo, soprattutto a Lione, città geograficamente vocata ad intrattenere rapporti con l'Italia. Il nuovo gusto per il bello, la rilettura in chiave filologica e storica dei testi classici, la convinzione che l'uomo, inteso come binomio inscindibile di anima e corpo, possa diventare l'oggetto principale della ricerca artistica sono tra gli elementi centrali del periodo. Rappresentanti principali della scuola lionese si possono considerare Maurice Scève e Louise Labé. Tra i principali autori del periodo vi sono i poeti della Pléiade, soprattutto Joachim du Bellay e Pierre de Ronsard, che vogliono dimostrare le qualità poetiche della lingua francese. In prosa François Rabelais, che ritrae lo spirito nuovo sotto le spoglie di una famiglia di giganti, le prediche di Francesco di Sales, la filosofia di Étienne de La Boétie, Pierre Charron o Jean Bodin e soprattutto Montaigne, i cui Saggi sono un'importante opera filosofica oltre che autobiografica. Quest'ultimo autore, vissuto nella seconda metà del secolo, riflette anche l'atmosfera più cupa del suo tempo, dominato dalle guerre di religione e di successione dinastica. La letteratura francese nel XVII secolo [modifica]In letteratura francese, il secolo è detto "d'oro", pieno com'è di raffinate erudizioni e rielaborazioni prese da antichità classiche, insieme però con una nuova esigenza di moralità e con il diffondersi dello spirito Cristiano in autori come Blaise Pascal o Antoine Arnauld, nelle discussioni tra giansenisti e gesuiti, fiorite intorno al convento di Port-Royal-des-Champs. Tra i principali autori di questo secolo vi sono anche Corneille, Racine e Molière, noti soprattutto per aver dato origine al teatro classico francese, punto di riferimento costante anche nei secoli a venire. L'estetica vede svilupparsi le teorie di Nicolas Boileau, mentre tra i poeti spicca François de Malherbe, i cui versi semplici e chiari, sono presentati parallelamente ad altre razionalizzazioni dell'epoca, come quelle del filosofo centrale del secolo francese, quel René Descartes che divenne famoso in Europa con il nome di Cartesio. Altre cose da notare sono le favole e i racconti di La Fontaine e di Perrault, e le massime e le riflessioni di La Rochefoucauld. Nel 1635 Richelieu fonda l'Académie française, che si diede tra i primi compiti quello di compilare un dizionario (prima ed. 1694). Restano da ricordare almeno Madame de La Fayette, la cui Princesse de Clèves è uno dei più fortunati e importanti romanzi epistolari. Anzi è la lettera stessa, tra epistolari e memorie, a prendersi una fetta importante dell'evoluzione linguistica e di gusto del secolo. Tra questi vanno ricordati Madame de Sévigné, Madame de Maintenon, Saint-Simon, e il Cardinale de Retz. L'eloquenza (oratori sacri, orazioni funebri, trattatistica varia) getta un ponte verso il secolo successivo anche con autori quali Bossuet, Fénelon (le cui Aventures de Télémaque fanno da modello pedagogico per diverse generazioni di educatori) o Jean de La Bruyère (i cui Caractères ci offrono oltre un migliaio di "ritratti"). La letteratura francese nel XVIII secolo [modifica]Detta l'"età dei lumi", in questo secolo lo spirito letterario non si fonda più solo sul bello e sul vero, ma mette in primo piano l'utile. Quasi tutti gli scrittori dell'epoca, per quanto di tifoseria avversa rispetto la "querelle" tra antichi e moderni, vogliono con le loro opere riformare la società. In accordo con l'Illuminismo, si scatena la fiducia verso la ragione e il progresso che rinuncia o dileggia i temi religiosi: opere storiche, scientifiche, giuridiche, pedagogiche e d'utopia, oltre che d'organizzazione pratica della società si moltiplicano. Nascono gli "intellettuali" laici: Montesquieu (con le fondamentali Lettres persanes e il successivo De l'esprit des lois), Voltaire (che spazia arditamente dal teatro al romanzo, dall'epica alla filosofia), Rousseau (che si volse alla natura come sola divinità a cui ubbidire, precorrendo il gusto dei romantici, ma seppe anche riflettere con il suo Contrat social sul diritto politico e con l'Émile e sui problemi dell'educazione) e Diderot, soprattutto per il suo contributo al vero libro del secolo che fu l'Encyclopédie (1751-72), a cui parteciparono anche d'Alembert, d'Holbach, Helvétius, Condillac e altri. Tra i poeti va ricordato André Chénier, e tra i prosatori almeno Laclos (con il romanzo epistolare Les liaisons dangereuses) e Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (con Paul e Virginie, pregno di esotismo), poi l'opera filosofico-erotica di Sade, o di Restif de la Bretonne. Altri esempi interessanti della letteratura di questo secolo sono la Manon Lescaut dell'abate Prévost, il Turcaret di Le Sage, i racconti e le commedie di Marivaux, e le satire teatrali di Beaumarchais. Tra gli oratori Mirabeau, e i vari Danton, Marat o Robespierre, protagonisti della Rivoluzione francese. Un'ulteriore opera esemplare dell'epoca sono i 36 volumi della Histoire naturelle di Buffon. La letteratura francese nel XIX secolo [modifica]Il secolo si apre con Obermann di Sénancour per scivolare subito nei dettami del romanticismo. Ora l'ispirazione viene prima delle regole, il sentimento prevale sulla ragione e la libertà è uno dei valori principali a cui appellarsi. Madame de Staël e Chateaubriand aprono le piste su cui si lanceranno a grandi velocità (favoriti dallo sviluppo del giornalismo e delle rotative) i grandi romantici come Musset, Lamartine, de Vigny, George Sand e i grandi romanzieri del secolo, Hugo, Balzac, Dumas père e, appartato e scoperto più tardi, Stendhal. Tra i poeti bisogna ricordare il movimento del Parnasse, Catulle Mendès, Théophile Gautier (autore anche del Capitain Fracasse), Alphonse Lemerre, Sully Prudhomme, Charles Cros, Isidore Ducasse Lautréamont, Jules Laforgue, Tristan Corbière, e soprattutto Baudelaire che, con Verlaine, Rimbaud e Mallarmé, apre la strada alla poesia del secolo successivo. L'arte della novella, con Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, Barbey d'Aurevilly, Mérimée o Nerval, e i nuovi romanzi dei vari Daudet, Dumas fils, Flaubert, Zola, e poi Maupassant, Loti, Huysmans, France, Bourget, Vallès misero al centro della narrazione la borghesia, i suoi problemi e i suoi sogni. La storiografia (con Jules Michelet o Adolphe Thiers), la filosofia (con Péguy, Ernest Renan o Gobineau) e la critica (con Sainte-Beuve, Brunetière o Taine) si sviluppano anch'esse. Un altro fenomeno (di annuncio e preistoria all'avvento della cinematografia che a fine-secolo comincia i primi passi), è il teatro leggero (Émile Augier, Victorien Sardou, Henry Becque, Edmond Rostand, il vaudeville) o il libro per ragazzi (ammesso che Poil de carotte di Jules Renard, per esempio, non sia piuttosto un libro per tutte le età). La letteratura francese nel XX secolo [modifica]A seguito di Mallarmé e del simbolismo prende una coloritura metafisica la poesia di Paul Valéry, che sta all'incrocio di varie avanguardie: il cubismo di Apollinaire, il dadaismo di Tristan Tzara, il surrealismo di André Breton e Louis Aragon (ma ai margini anche Henri Michaux, Raymond Queneau o Michel Leiris), l'espressionismo di Maurice Maeterlinck. Altri poeti sono Paul Éluard, Max Jacob, Blaise Cendrars, Francis Jammes, Émile Verhaeren, Jean Cocteau, Paul Claudel, Valery Larbaud, Jacques Prévert, Jules Supervielle, Saint-John Perse, Francis Ponge. Tra i romanzieri Anatole France, Maurice Barrès, André Gide, Marcel Proust (la cui Recherche è una delle opere cardine dell'umanità del XX secolo), Jean Giono, François Mauriac, Julien Green, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Henry de Montherlant, Céline, Marcel Aymé, Georges Bernanos, Roger Martin du Gard, Julien Gracq, Albert Cohen. Ora l'intellettuale è "engagé", da Paul Morand a André Malraux, da Jean-Paul Sartre a Albert Camus, a Simone de Beauvoir, la filosofia e la letteratura si confondono (da Georges Bataille ad Alain, passando anche da Maurice Merleau-Ponty e Henri Bergson). Il teatro vede figure come Alfred Jarry, Antonin Artaud, Jacques Copeau, Jean Giraudoux, Jean Genet, Samuel Beckett (nato irlandese, ma che cambia lingua e raggiunge il successo in francese), Eugène Ionesco, Jean Anouilh o Arthur Adamov. Lo scrittore diventa un personaggio lui stesso (come per Colette, Simenon, Duras o Yourcenar). Nella seconda parte del secolo ci sono diverse sperimentazioni, come il Nouveau roman (Michel Butor, Robert Pinget, Alain Robbe-Grillet, Philippe Sollers, Claude Simon, Claude Ollier, Nathalie Sarraute). Altri esperimenti in prosa li fanno Georges Perec o Michel Tournier e in poesia René Char o Yves Bonnefoy. Anche la critica conosce un momento d'oro (Maurice Blanchot, Roland Barthes, Gérard Genette). Il secolo si chiude con successi di vendite (Daniel Pennac) e scandalismo (Michel Houellebecq) che sembrano aver ceduto la letteratura a operazioni di mercato (forse per resistere al potere forte di altre forme di racconto, come la televisione e i giornali), ma nasce anche l'interesse verso la letteratura francofona d'oltremare e le forme di scrittura ibride del nuovo secolo a venire. Voci correlate [modifica]Altri progetti [modifica]
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